Home About us Editorial board Search Ahead of print Current issue Archives Submit article Instructions Subscribe Contacts Login 
Home Print this page Email this page
Users Online:: 6009

 Table of Contents  
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Year : 2016  |  Volume : 19  |  Issue : 2  |  Page : 82-88

Awareness of blood pressure status, undiagnosed hypertension and proteinuria among adults in Umuahia, South-East Nigeria


1 Department of Internal Medicine, Nephrology Unit, Federal Medical Centre, Umuahia, Abia State, Nigeria
2 Department of Family Medicine, Federal Medical Centre, Umuahia, Abia State, Nigeria
3 Department of Ophthalmology and Eye Centre, Abia Specialist Hospital and Diagnostic Centre, Umuahia, Abia State, Nigeria
4 Department of Paediatrics, Federal Medical Centre Umuahia, Umuahia, Abia State, Nigeria
5 Nursing Service Division, Federal Medical Centre Umuahia, Umuahia, Abia State, Nigeria
6 Ministry of Health, Nnamdi Azikiwe Secretariate, Umuahia, Abia State, Nigeria

Date of Web Publication12-Jul-2016

Correspondence Address:
Chimezie Godswill Okwuonu
Department of Internal Medicine, Nephrology Unit, Federal Medical Centre, Umuahia, Abia State
Nigeria
Login to access the Email id

Source of Support: None, Conflict of Interest: None


DOI: 10.4103/1118-8561.186035

Rights and Permissions
  Abstract 

Background: Hypertension and proteinuria are risk factors for cardiovascular disease. They are also important risk factors for further deterioration of renal function in chronic kidney disease (CKD) irrespective of the cause of CKD. Both are asymptomatic at early stages and can only be detected during medical consultation for a related or unrelated illness. Materials and Methods: This was a cross-sectional study carried out to assess awareness of blood pressure (BP) status among adults in a semi-urban community in Southern Nigeria. The magnitude of undiagnosed hypertension and proteinuria in the community was also assessed. BP measurement was by standardized method while proteinuria was detected by use of urinary dipstick. Data was analyzed using SPSS version 21.0. Results: A total of 389 people were recruited. There were 223 (57.3%) males and 116 (42.7%) females. Only 104 (26.7%) were aware of their BP status before the study. Awareness was higher in females but did not differ significantly among the different age groups, educational status or occupations. Hypertension was newly diagnosed in 105 (27%) of the participants while proteinuria was diagnosed in 47 (12.1%). Proteinuria and overweight were higher among participants with prehypertension than other BP categories. Conclusions: The study revealed a low level of awareness of BP status and a high prevalence of undiagnosed hypertension and proteinuria in the community. Concerted efforts are needed to improve the awareness of BP and other risk factors for cardiovascular and kidney diseases.

Keywords: Chronic kidney disease, hypertension, Nigeria, obesity, proteinuria


How to cite this article:
Okwuonu CG, Ojimadu NE, Chimezie OJ, Madudonu U, Ogbulafor N, Ogah OS. Awareness of blood pressure status, undiagnosed hypertension and proteinuria among adults in Umuahia, South-East Nigeria. Sahel Med J 2016;19:82-8

How to cite this URL:
Okwuonu CG, Ojimadu NE, Chimezie OJ, Madudonu U, Ogbulafor N, Ogah OS. Awareness of blood pressure status, undiagnosed hypertension and proteinuria among adults in Umuahia, South-East Nigeria. Sahel Med J [serial online] 2016 [cited 2024 Mar 28];19:82-8. Available from: https://www.smjonline.org/text.asp?2016/19/2/82/186035


  Introduction Top


Hypertension is an important public health problem and the leading cause of cardiovascular disease globally.[1],[2] It accounts for about 6% of deaths worldwide [3] and affects approximately 11–42% of Africans.[4],[5],[6] Hypertension ranks first among noncommunicable diseases in Nigeria [7] with prevalence ranging from 8% to 46.4% in both men and women in rural and urban communities.[8],[9],[10],[11] A recent noncommunicable disease survey in Abia State obtained a prevalence of 31.8% among 2999 respondents.[12] However, the awareness of blood pressure (BP) status among the participants was not assessed. Studies have shown that most people in the general population are not aware of their BP status.[7],[13] With relative lack of symptoms, most people with hypertension are unaware and some who are aware are nonadherent to prescribed pharmacologic and nonpharmacologic measures required for optimal BP control.[14],[15],[16] One of the first steps toward the prevention of a disease is awareness of the disease.

Longstanding hypertension is commonly complicated by widespread vascular endothelial dysfunction which in the kidney leads to proteinuria.[17] Proteinuria in a person with high BP may be an indicator of declining kidney function.[18] If the hypertension is not controlled, the person can develop chronic kidney disease (CKD) which can progress to end stage renal disease. On the other hand, CKD can lead to hypertension through salt and water retention in the body.[19]

Hypertension and proteinuria are important risk factors for further deterioration in renal function irrespective of the cause of CKD.[20] Studies have established that interventions that decrease BP level in patients with proteinuria and renal insufficiency consistently delay the progression of CKD.[21],[22] Because neither hypertension nor CKD generally shows symptoms in the early stages,[23] many people are unaware of their presence until detected during routine check-up or investigation for a related/unrelated illness. Assessment for proteinuria as a marker of CKD was also not part of the noncommunicable disease survey carried out in the state.[12]

As part of a medical screening and free treatment exercise carried out in Olokoro, Umuahia South Local Government Area of Abia State, South-East Nigeria, we designed a study aimed at assessing the awareness of BP status, define (if any) the magnitude of undiagnosed hypertension and proteinuria in this semi-urban community. We also sought to assess factors that may influence these variables.


  Materials and Methods Top


Study design and site

This was a cross-sectional study carried out in Olokoro, a semi-urban community in Umuahia South Local Government Area of Abia State, South-East Nigeria. The community is about 8 km from Umuahia town, the state capital. The inhabitants are predominantly Igbos, mostly Christians and traders with few civil servants and farmers. The study was conducted from August 15th to 18th, 2013.

Study population

The study population included adults from the age of 18 years and above who presented during the medical screening exercise carried out in the study site.

Sample size and sampling

The sample size was calculated using appropriate formula [24] based on prevalence of hypertension in Abia State of 31.8% with 95% confidence and a margin of error of 5%. Participants who consented to the study were consecutively selected.

Inclusion and exclusion criteria

Consenting adults, 18 years or older were included in the study. Those participants that had psychiatric illness, who were chronically ill-looking, had features suggestive of urinary tract infection or manifested hypertensive emergency were excluded from the interview. Also, females who were pregnant or currently menstruating at the time of the study, and participants with symptoms suggestive of urinary tract infection were excluded from the study. This is because proteinuria can occur in these settings.

Recruitment and data collection

A researcher-administered questionnaire was used in data collection. The questionnaire was pretested with 38 patients seen in a health center in the adjacent community. The aim of the pretesting was to reveal difficulties in understanding the meaning of the questions, estimate the amount of time for completion of the questionnaire and to assess the participants' willingness to be involved in the study. The face and content validity of the questionnaires were also evaluated by one family physician and two resident doctors. On the basis of the feedback obtained, some questions were modified and the clarity of some questions improved.

The screening exercise was executed in two stages:

  • Stage 1 involved recording the sociodemographic data of the participants in the questionnaire and taking a brief medical history
  • Stage 2 involved measurement of BP, anthropometric data collection, treating any diagnosed medical illness and dipstick urine test for protein.


At this stage also, participants with abnormal results were informed and referred to the nearby hospital for follow-up.

The BP was measured on the nondorminant arm using a mercury sphygmomanometer (Accoson, England) at heart level using appropriate cuff size. The subjects were allowed to relax for 3–5 min in a sitting position before assessment of BP. Hypertension was defined as a systolic BP (SBP) ≥140 mmHg or diastolic BP (DBP) ≥90 mmHg and/or concomitant use of antihypertensive agents.[17] Two readings were obtained at an interval of 5 min and the average of the two reading recorded. The BP findings were grouped according to the Seventh Joint National Committee Report (JNC 7) on detection, evaluation and treatment of high BP (JNC 7)[17] report staging of hypertension in which the systolic and diastolic pressures were equally weighted and either of them qualified the patient for a BP group. The JNC 7 guideline described the optimal BP as a SBP <120 and DBP of <80 mmHg. The next category of BP measurements comes under the term prehypertension which includes the range of SBP of 120–139 or diastolic pressure of 80–89 mmHg; either of which qualified the individual as having prehypertension. Blood pressure readings equal or greater than a systolic of 140 mmHg and/or diastolic of 90 mmHg were classified as hypertension stage 1 (SBP 140–159 mmHg and/or DBP 90–99 mmHg) or stage 2 for BPs equal or greater than 160 mmHg systolic and/or 100 mmHg diastolic.

Participants were instructed on modality of collecting mid-stream urine specimen. Thereafter they provided urine samples which were tested using urinary dipstick Combi-10 test strips (CHUNGO Pharm, Korea). Significant proteinuria was defined as dipstick positive for protein of 1+ and above.

Weights were taken using bathroom scale (Hana Weighing Scale, China) after removal of shoes and heavy clothings, while the heights were recorded using stadiometer (RGZ-160; made by Health Medical Equipment). The body mass index (BMI) was calculated from the measured weight (in kilograms) and height (in meters) and was categorized as normal (BMI <25 kg/m 2), overweight (BMI = 25–29.9 kg/m 2) or obese (BMI ≥ 30 kg/m 2) according to the WHO criteria.[25]

Permission for the screening and study was obtained from the local government authorities and informed consent from the participants.

Statistical analysis

The Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SSPS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA) version 21.0 statistical software was used for data analysis. For continuous variables, mean values and standard deviations (SDs) were calculated and the means compared using two sample t-test. Categorical variables were compared using the nonparametric tests - Chi-squares. The cross-tabulation was used to analyze the relationship between the BMI, grades of BP (SBP and DBP), and proteinuria in the respondents. Correlation analysis was used to assess the relationship between age and BP (SBP and DBP) in respondents. All tests were two-tailed with P < 0.05 taken as statistically significant.


  Results Top


A total of 389 participants were screened. The sociodemographic characteristics of the participants were as shown in [Table 1]. Among the participants, 26.7% (104/389) were aware of their BP status before the screening while 73.3% (285/389) were not aware. More females (16.7%) were aware of their BP status than men (10%). This difference, however, was not statistically significant (χ2 = 1.55, P = 0.25). The mean age (SD) of those who were aware of their BP status (57.1 [12.0]) and those not aware (56.4 [12.8]) did not differ significantly (t = 0.437, P = 0.66). Also, there was no significant difference in awareness of BP status among the different educational groups (χ2 with trend = 0.16, P = 0.69), occupations (χ2 = 8.57, P = 0.12) or marital status (χ2 = 3.08, P = 0.22).
Table 1: Sociodemographic characteristics of the participants

Click here to view


One hundred and forty-seven participants (37.8%) had hypertension [Table 2]. Among these, 10.8% (42/389) had been previously diagnosed while 27% (105/389) were undiagnosed prior to the screening exercise. There was a weak positive significant correlation between age and both systolic (r = 0.16, P < 0.01) and diastolic (r = 0.12, P = 0.02) BPs.
Table 2: BP categories, proteinuria and BMI of the participants

Click here to view


Forty-seven participants (12.1%) had significant proteinuria [Table 2]. Among these, 3.3% (13/389) had stage 1 hypertension while 1% (4/389) had stage 2 hypertension. There was a statistically significant difference in the finding of significant proteinuria among the different BP categories (χ2 = 9.39, df = 3, P = 0.03); more participants with normal BP and prehypertension were found with significant proteinuria compared with participants found with different stages of hypertension [Table 3]. There was also a significant difference in the distribution of BMI across the different BP categories (χ2 = 14.55, df = 6, P = 0.024); a higher percentage of overweight individuals had prehypertension [Table 4].
Table 3: Distribution of proteinuria among the BP categories

Click here to view
Table 4: Distribution of BMI among the BP categories

Click here to view



  Discussion Top


The main findings of this study were that more than 70% of the participants were unaware of their BP status prior to this study; more than 70% of those diagnosed with hypertension in this study were previously undiagnosed; also significant proteinuria and overweight was found in participants with prehypertension more than in other BP categories.

Our study is similar to earlier studies in Nigeria among hypertensives [26],[27],[28],[29] in terms of mean age of hypertensives and the age category commonly reported to have a high prevalence of hypertension. This is also in line with the observation that BP increases with age.[17]

Most of the participants had some form of education, corroborating earlier report by the Abia State Planning Commission in 2008 which gave a high literacy rate of 85.6% in the state.[30]

Hypertension is one of the most important causes of cardiovascular morbidity and mortality.[31],[32],[33],[34] Previous studies have shown that the proportion of people who are aware of their high BP status is usually low since the condition is often without symptoms.[7],[13],[35] In this study, only 26.7% of the participants were aware of their BP status before the study. Among those found to be hypertensive, only 10.6% were aware of their condition before the screening. This is lower than what was obtained in the national survey on noncommunicable diseases in Nigeria [7] where it was reported that 33.8% of the hypertensives were aware of their BP status. It is even lower than 18.5% obtained in Benin Nigeria [13] and 20% in Tanzania. The sample size and sampling procedure in our study differs with these other studies and could account for such differences. Of interest also is that none of the sociodemographic variables (age, educational level, occupation, marital status) seems to be a determinant of this awareness. One would have expected that people with higher education would be significantly more aware of their BP. However, people with higher educational status tend to be preoccupied with their job and may not have time for regular BP checks.

Females were more aware of their BP status than men. This is in agreement with other studies [7],[13] and could be due to differences in health seeking behavior; as females are more likely than men to present to hospital for various health related issues including antenatal visits, family planning and well woman clinics. All these are opportunities for casual BP checks.

The prevalence of hypertension obtained in this study (37.8%) is comparable to 38% obtained in a similar study in Ile-Ife.[8] However, it was slightly higher than 31.8% obtained in a recent noncommunicable disease survey carried out in the State where this index study was carried out.[12] The reason for this higher prevalence of hypertension in this present study may be because majority of the participants in this study were traders. Ulasi et al. had earlier reported a high prevalence of hypertension among traders in Nigeria.[36] This is because they sit in one place to conduct their businesses (sedentary lifestyle) and may not have regular exercise. In addition, they spend most of the day at the market and depend on food vendors for most of their meals. The typical local meal of this community consists mainly of root crops of yam and processed cassava. These have been shown to have naturally low sodium and mineral content.[37] Hence they are often salt-laden during preparation to improve taste. All these are possible risk factors for high BP in traders.

Proteinuria is not only a marker of kidney disease but also a risk factor for CKD progression, and its amelioration shown to retard progression of CKD.[38],[39],[40],[41] Earlier studies have demonstrated that individuals with proteinuria are at higher risk of cardiovascular disease and CKD.[42],[43]

The prevalence of proteinuria in a population varies depending on method of detection of proteinuria (urinary dipstick, spot urine albumin-creatinine ratio, 24-h proteinuria), age of the participants, presence or absence of co-morbid conditions such as diabetes, hypertension and CKD.[42],[44],[45] Up to 12.1% of the participants in this study have significant proteinuria based on dipstick measurement. This is comparable to 11.7% obtained in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey III among 14,836 noninstitutionalized population of the United States of America,[46] although a different method was used in detecting proteinuria. Our finding, however, is lower than 19.6% obtained from Kano [47] Nigeria where a similar method of detection of proteinuria was used. This may be due to the strict exclusion criteria employed in this study as participants with symptoms suggestive of urinary tract infection, pregnant women and menstruating females were excluded from urine analysis. These criteria were not reported in the other study compared.

Of importance in this study also is the fact that individuals with prehypertension had a higher prevalence of proteinuria than other BP categories; and this was statistically significant. This has implication for targeted intervention. Institution of lifestyle measures among individuals with prehypertension has been shown to be effective in prevention of hypertension.[16],[17] Hence screening for proteinuria should not only be done for hypertensive patients but also in people with prehypertension. If detected, measures that ameliorate proteinuria should be instituted at this stage to avert further progression of proteinuria with its adverse consequences.


  Conclusion Top


There is poor awareness of BP status in the studied population especially among the males. The prevalence of undiagnosed hypertension, prehypertension and proteinuria is equally high. The finding of a higher prevalence of proteinuria among participants with prehypertension is particularly alarming. This finding calls for vigilance in screening for proteinuria among people with prehypertension.


  Recommendation Top


The first step toward prevention of any disease is awareness of the disease. We, therefore, recommend institution of awareness program to enlighten the general populace on need for routine BP check both casually and during encounter with medical personnel. Knowledge of risk factors for kidney disease and screening for them in every patient has been advocated for by the national kidney foundation.[20] Patient with risk factors for kidney disease should be screened for kidney damage using simple cost-effective laboratory investigations including urinalysis.[45]

Finally, patients with prehypertension should be screened for proteinuria as such individuals might be at risk for renal damage.

Limitation

Proteinuria was semi-quantitatively assessed using urinary dipstick. This would have included individuals with lower degrees of (detectable) proteinuria as having significant proteinuria; hence may be the reason why proteinuria rate is high among normals more than hypertensives in this study. Quantitative measurement using spot urine albumin to creatinine ratio would have given a reliable estimate of proteinuria.[48],[49],[50],[51],[52] Also, we did not employ standard mental state assessment tools in excluding psychiatric illness. Administering such to all patients would be cumbersome within the limits of the medical screening exercise of this nature.

Financial support and sponsorship

Nil.

Conflicts of interest

There are no conflicts of interest.

 
  References Top

1.
Kearney PM, Whelton M, Reynolds K, Whelton PK, He J. Worldwide prevalence of hypertension: A systematic review. J Hypertens 2004;22:11-9.  Back to cited text no. 1
    
2.
Kearney PM, Whelton M, Reynolds K, Muntner P, Whelton PK, He J. Global burden of hypertension: Analysis of worldwide data. Lancet 2005;365:217-23.  Back to cited text no. 2
    
3.
Kotchen TA. Hypertension control: Trends, approaches, and goals. Hypertension 2007;49:19-20.  Back to cited text no. 3
    
4.
Adedoyin RA, Mbada CE, Balogun MO, Martins T, Adebayo RA, Akintomide A, et al. Prevalence and pattern of hypertension in a semiurban community in Nigeria. Eur J Cardiovasc Prev Rehabil 2008;15:683-7.  Back to cited text no. 4
    
5.
Twagirumukiza M, De Bacquer D, Kips JG, de Backer G, Stichele RV, Van Bortel LM. Current and projected prevalence of arterial hypertension in sub-Saharan Africa by sex, age and habitat: An estimate from population studies. J Hypertens 2011;29:1243-52.  Back to cited text no. 5
    
6.
Tesfaye F, Byass P, Wall S. Population based prevalence of high blood pressure among adults in Addis Ababa: Uncovering a silent epidemic. BMC Cardiovasc Disord 2009;9:39.  Back to cited text no. 6
    
7.
Akinkugbe OO. Non communicable disease in Nigeria: Final Report of National Survey. Lagos: Federal Ministry of Health; 1997.  Back to cited text no. 7
    
8.
Fatiu A, Abubakr S, Muzamil H, Aderoju G, Funmilayo O, Bola O, et al. Undiagnosed hypertension and proteinuria in a market population in Ile-Ife, Nigeria. Arab J Nephrol Transplant 2011;4:141-6.  Back to cited text no. 8
    
9.
Ogunlesi A, Osotimehin B, Abbiyessuku F, Kadiri S, Akinkugbe O, Liao YL, et al. Blood pressure and educational level among factory workers in Ibadan, Nigeria. J Hum Hypertens 1991;5:375-80.  Back to cited text no. 9
    
10.
Oladapo OO, Salako L, Sodiq O, Shoyinka K, Adedapo K, Falase AO. A prevalence of cardiometabolic risk factors among a rural Yoruba South-Western Nigerian population: A population-based survey. Cardiovasc J Afr 2010;21:26-31.  Back to cited text no. 10
    
11.
Ulasi II, Ijoma CK, Onodugo OD. A community-based study of hypertension and cardio-metabolic syndrome in semi-urban and rural communities in Nigeria. BMC Health Serv Res 2010;10:71.  Back to cited text no. 11
    
12.
Ogah OS, Madukwe OO, Onyeonoro UU, Chukwuonye II, Ukegbu AU, Akhimien MO, et al. Cardiovascular risk factors and non-communicable diseases in Abia State, Nigeria: Report of a community-based survey. Int J Med Biomed Res 2013;2:57-68.  Back to cited text no. 12
    
13.
Omuemu VO, Okojie OH, Omuemu CE. Awareness of high blood pressure status, treatment and control in a rural community in Edo State. Niger J Clin Pract 2007;10:208-12.  Back to cited text no. 13
[PUBMED]    
14.
Okeahialam BN. Adherence and preference issues in anti-hypertensive therapy: Experience from a private medical facility in Jos, Nigeria. J Med Trop 2011;13:11-4.  Back to cited text no. 14
    
15.
Ajayi EA, Adeoti AO, Ajayi IA, Ajayi AO, Adeyeye VO. Adherence to antihypertensive medications and some of its clinical implications in patients seen at a tertiary hospital in Nigeria. IOSR J Dent Med Sci 2013;8:36-40.  Back to cited text no. 15
    
16.
Okwuonu CG, Emmanuel CI, Ojimadu NE. Perception and practice of lifestyle modification in the treatment of hypertension among hypertensives in South-East Nigeria. Int J Med Biomed Res 2014;3:121-31.  Back to cited text no. 16
    
17.
Chobanian AV, Bakris GL, Black HR, Cushman WC, Green LA, Izzo JL Jr, et al. The seventh report of the Joint National Committee on prevention, detection, evaluation, and treatment of high blood pressure: The JNC 7 report. JAMA 2003;289:2560-72.  Back to cited text no. 17
    
18.
Yaqoob MM. Renal disease. In: Kumar P, Clark M, editors. Kumar and Clark's Clinical Medicine. 7th ed. Spain: Elsevier Saunders; 2009. p. 605-87.  Back to cited text no. 18
    
19.
Bello A, Kawar B, El-Kossi M, EL Nahas M. Epidemiology and pathophysiology of chronic kidney disease. In: Floege J, Johnson RJ, Feehaly J, editors. Comprehensive Clinical Nephrology. 4th ed. Missouri: Elsevier Saunders; 2010.  Back to cited text no. 19
    
20.
National Kidney Foundation. KDIGO clinical practice guideline for acute kidney injury. Kidney Int Suppl 2012;2:1-138.  Back to cited text no. 20
    
21.
Brenner BM. Remission of renal disease: Recounting the challenge, acquiring the goal. J Clin Invest 2002;110:1753-8.  Back to cited text no. 21
    
22.
Peterson JC, Adler S, Burkart JM, Greene T, Hebert LA, Hunsicker LG, et al. Blood pressure control, proteinuria, and the progression of renal disease. The Modification of Diet in Renal Disease Study. Ann Intern Med 1995;123:754-62.  Back to cited text no. 22
    
23.
Ojeh-Oziegbe O, Okwuonu CG, Osayande V. The subtlety of chronic kidney disease-need for health care providers to be at alert. Pionner Med J 2014;4:24-7.  Back to cited text no. 23
    
24.
Araoye MO. Research Methodology with Statistics for Health and Social Sciences. Ilorin: Nathadex Publication; 2004.  Back to cited text no. 24
    
25.
World Health Organization. Report of a WHO Consultation on Obesity. Obesity Preventing and Managing the Global Epidemic. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization; 1997.  Back to cited text no. 25
    
26.
Akpa MR, Alasia DD, Emem-Chioma PC. An appraisal of hospital based blood pressure control in Port Harcourt Nigeria. Niger Health J 2008;8:27-30.  Back to cited text no. 26
    
27.
Ike SO, Aniebue PN, Aniebue UU. Knowledge, perceptions and practices of lifestyle-modification measures among adult hypertensives in Nigeria. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 2010;104:55-60.  Back to cited text no. 27
    
28.
Oyati AI, Orogade AA, Danbauchi SS, Azuh PC. Awareness, treatment and control of hypertension among hypertensives in Zaria. J Med Trop 2011;13:139-44.  Back to cited text no. 28
    
29.
Iloh GU, Ofoedu JN, Njoku PU, Amadi AN, Godswill-Uko EU. Medication adherence and blood pressure control amongst adults with primary hypertension attending a tertiary hospital primary care clinic in Eastern Nigeria. Afr J Prim Health Care Fam Med 2013;5:446-52.  Back to cited text no. 29
    
30.
Abia State Planning Commission. Abia State Core Welfare Indicators. Umuahia: Abia State Planning Commission; 2008.  Back to cited text no. 30
    
31.
Kannel WB. Blood pressure as a cardiovascular risk factor: Prevention and treatment. JAMA 1996;275:1571-6.  Back to cited text no. 31
    
32.
Odedosu T, Schoenthaler A, Vieira DL, Agyemang C, Ogedegbe G. Overcoming barriers to hypertension control in African Americans. Cleve Clin J Med 2012;79:46-56.  Back to cited text no. 32
    
33.
Wolf-Maier K, Cooper RS, Kramer H, Banegas JR, Giampaoli S, Joffres MR, et al. Hypertension treatment and control in five European countries, Canada, and the United States. Hypertension 2004;43:10-7.  Back to cited text no. 33
    
34.
Garrison RJ, Kannel WB, Stokes J 3rd, Castelli WP. Incidence and precursors of hypertension in young adults: The Framingham Offspring Study. Prev Med 1987;16:235-51.  Back to cited text no. 34
    
35.
Okwuonu CG, Ojimadu NE, Okaka EI, Akemokwe FM. Patient-related barriers to hypertension control in a Nigerian population. Int J Gen Med 2014;7:345-53.  Back to cited text no. 35
    
36.
Ulasi II, Ijoma CK, Onwubere BJ, Arodiwe E, Onodugo O, Okafor C. High prevalence and low awareness of hypertension in a market population in enugu, Nigeria. Int J Hypertens 2011;2011:869675.  Back to cited text no. 36
    
37.
Oluyemi EA, Akinlua AA, Adenuga AA, Adebajo MB. Mineral contents os some commonly consumed Nigerian foods. Eur J Sci Res 2005;6:11-5.  Back to cited text no. 37
    
38.
Yoshida T, Takei T, Shirota S, Tsukada M, Sugiura H, Itabashi M, et al. Risk factors for progression in patients with early-stage chronic kidney disease in the Japanese population. Intern Med 2008;47:1859-64.  Back to cited text no. 38
    
39.
Bernadet-Monrozies P, Rostaing L, Kamar N, Durand D. The effect of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors on the progression of chronic renal failure. Presse Med 2002;31:1714-20.  Back to cited text no. 39
    
40.
Ruilope LM. Angiotensin receptor blockers: RAAS blockade and renoprotection. Curr Med Res Opin 2008;24:1285-93.  Back to cited text no. 40
    
41.
Tangri N, Stevens LA, Griffith J, Tighiouart H, Djurdjev O, Naimark D, et al. A predictive model for progression of chronic kidney disease to kidney failure. JAMA 2011;305:1553-9.  Back to cited text no. 41
    
42.
Grimm RH Jr, Svendsen KH, Kasiske B, Keane WF, Wahi MM. Proteinuria is a risk factor for mortality over 10 years of follow-up. MRFIT Research Group. Multiple Risk Factor Intervention Trial. Kidney Int Suppl 1997;63:S10-4.  Back to cited text no. 42
    
43.
Bianchi S, Bigazzi R, Campese VM. Microalbuminuria in essential hypertension: Significance, pathophysiology, and therapeutic implications. Am J Kidney Dis 1999;34:973-95.  Back to cited text no. 43
    
44.
National Kidney Foundation. K/DOQI clinical practice guidelines for chronic kidney disease: Evaluation, classification, and stratification. Am J Kidney Dis 2002;39:S1-266.  Back to cited text no. 44
    
45.
National Kidney Foundation. KDIGO 2012 clinical practice guideline for the evaluation and management of chronic kidney disease. Kidney Int Suppl 2013;3:19.  Back to cited text no. 45
    
46.
Coresh J, Astor BC, Greene T, Eknoyan G, Levey AS. Prevalence of chronic kidney disease and decreased kidney function in the adult US population: Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Am J Kidney Dis 2003;41:1-12.  Back to cited text no. 46
    
47.
Nalado AM, Abdu A, Muhammad H, Abdu A, Sakajiki AM, Adamu B. Prevalence of risk factors for chronic kidney disease among civil servants in Kano. Niger J Basic Clin Sci 2012;9:70-74.  Back to cited text no. 47
  Medknow Journal  
48.
Lamb EJ, MacKenzie F, Stevens PE. How should proteinuria be detected and measured? Ann Clin Biochem 2009;46:205-17.  Back to cited text no. 48
    
49.
Atkins RC, Briganti EM, Zimmet PZ, Chadban SJ. Association between albuminuria and proteinuria in the general population: The AusDiab Study. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2003;18:2170-4.  Back to cited text no. 49
    
50.
Viswanathan G, Upadhyay A. Assessment of proteinuria. Adv Chronic Kidney Dis 2011;18:243-8.  Back to cited text no. 50
    
51.
Rupprecht HD. Differential diagnosis of proteinuria. MMW Fortschr Med 2004;146:41-5.  Back to cited text no. 51
    
52.
Davidson MB, Smiley JF. Relationship between dipstick positive proteinuria and albumin: Creatinine ratios. J Diabwwetes Complications 1999;13:52-5.  Back to cited text no. 52
    



 
 
    Tables

  [Table 1], [Table 2], [Table 3], [Table 4]


This article has been cited by
1 Association of hypertension with generalized obesity in rural south-western Nigeria
Taiwo RAIMI,Olatunde ODUSAN
Journal of Surgery and Medicine. 2020;
[Pubmed] | [DOI]



 

Top
 
 
  Search
 
Similar in PUBMED
   Search Pubmed for
   Search in Google Scholar for
 Related articles
Access Statistics
Email Alert *
Add to My List *
* Registration required (free)

 
  In this article
   Abstract
  Introduction
   Materials and Me...
  Results
  Discussion
  Conclusion
  Recommendation
   References
   Article Tables

 Article Access Statistics
    Viewed5631    
    Printed208    
    Emailed0    
    PDF Downloaded349    
    Comments [Add]    
    Cited by others 1    

Recommend this journal


[TAG2]
[TAG3]
[TAG4]